The church of Carcar sits on a hill overlooking this Cebu town. It is one of the magnificant and unique churches in the province. The statues of the 12 apostles are just a later addition.

Carcar Church archival photo probably 1950s-60s

Carcar is located at the eastern coast of Cebu south of the capital, Cebu City. It is bounded by San Fernando in the north, Sibonga in the south and Barili in the west. It’s beautiful church overlooks the equally beautiful heritage town, the only one of its kind in the province with its many ancestral houses from different periods.

The town, originally called Siaro, was first located near the sea in what is now the barrio of Valladolid. As early as 1559, the Augustinians already established their convent of Our Lady of the Visitation and was a visita of Sto. Niño. Between 1607 and 1610, it was made a vicariate and in 1611 was transferred under the matrix of San Nicolas.

The town was frequently visited, burned and looted by Muslim slave raiders. When it transferred to its present hilltop location, it dropped its name and used Cabcar or Carcar in reference to a tall fern locally called kabkab that was then plentiful in the area. There’s no definite date to the transfer but Galende noted that the Libro de gobierno in 1620 already used the new name.

Carcar was one of the richest towns in the late 17th century and its spiritual administration encompassed a very large area that stretched down to Oslob upto Tanong (now Santander), at the tip of Cebu. In 1690, it was divided into two vicariates, the southern towns separated and placed under the vicariate of Boljoon.

It is not known how many churches were built prior to the present one but the current standing structure was started in 1860 by Fray Antonio Manglano and finished in 1875 by Fray Manuel Fernandez Rubio.

The beautiful centuries old icon of the Immaculate Concepcion of Oslob which was spared from the fire that gutted the church. The white sky is reflected on the plexiglass protecting it.

On 26 March 08, an 8 hour fire gutted the more than a century old kumbento (parish house) and church of Oslob in Cebu. What was left were the thick stone walls and belfry as well as an icon of the parish patron. This is my tribute to this beautiful and historic church.

I visited the Basilica del Sto. Nino, the Augustinian convent in Cebu last 31 October to take photos around the church for a future post at my travel blog, langyaw.com. When I went out, I was surprised that the centuries old icon of the Inmaculada Concepcion (Immaculate Concepcion) of Oslob Church was just outside, encased in clear plexiglass and there were two long lines infront where people waited to come close and touch it.

The church of Oslob will be rebuilt but it is estimated to cost as much as 30 million pesos. Other than the second collection during mass, the icon visits several churches within Cebu to raise funds. During the time that I was there, the Basilica was just one of the stops in Cebu City.

It’s the first time for me to get upclose and touch the icon. It’s really beautiful and ancient. It is made of hardwood and about 5-6 inches in thickness. The folk relief is just stunning. Except for a blackened portion at one part of the bottom, there’s no trace that will indicate that it just survived a fire. I was just beside it and I can’t just help but marvel at this masterpiece.

While people were lining up infront, there were also many who were gathering behind the icon, touching and taking photos. They were abuzz about one portion where a faint trace forming a woman’s face can be discerned. While many say that it might have formed there miraculously, I would say that it is nothing but just some random pattern.

The domed octagonal cemetery of Tabaco is impressive with its architecture. Black volcanic stone is used, just like the cathedral.

Extant mortuary chapels in the country are hard to find except maybe if you are in the province of Iloilo where there are a few excellent examples. However, beyond that province and Cebu, there are also scattered across the rest of the regions but not all and I haven’t seen one from Mindanao. During my travels, I was able to find some that are now posted here.

Not all towns and cities have them as only the more affluent ones were able to build these. Typically, these cemetery chapels are either found at the center, some are at the back end and an exception seems to be the Simbaan a Bassit which, other than located at the front, it has the only working espadaña, architectural feature where the bells are hung at the pediment, in the region. Nagcarlan is beautiful with its circular cemetery like Paco in Manila (not shown here), sports an espadaña and has a catacomb, the only one that I’ve seen.

Lucban and Tayabas surprised me with its twin belfries. While the former is in ruins, the latter is still in working condition and made me smile because of the gothic architecture (lancet portal & trefoil). Still in Tayabas, the Santuario de las Almas is huge compared to the other chapels.

Cabatuan, San Joaquin, Miag-ao all in Iloilo and Tabaco City in Albay have their own octagonal chapels of which San Joaquin is the most impressive. Tabaco’s is also stunning because of its dark volcanic stones. These two are domed.

Lastly, Sta. Maria in Ilocos Sur looks impressive but it’s difficult to ascertain as it is already in ruins. The one in Malabon, Metro Manila has only its lower part extant and is also in ruins. Both were constructed by the Augustinians and are located just near the main church.

The mortuary chapel in Calamba, Cebu City is notable for its stylized skeleton relief that finds no parallel in Cebu.

The cemetery and mortuary chapels in Cebu are not as grand as those in Iloilo and are in different degrees of condition with most having been renovated and one in near collapse. For purposes of identification, I should clarify the two: cemetery chapels are those structures that are within the cemetery perimeter. It was in the 19th century that churches complied with the king’s edict to relocate these away from churches. In more affluent towns, these burial places were fenced and a chapel was built either at the center or at the far end. The mortuary chapel are structures that were built typically within the church compound either beside it or infront. It was where masses were said or a wake was held.

In the island province of Cebu, the presence of these structures are quite rare and are usually concentrated in areas that were under the Augustinian order. In this post, I have included those that can be found only in Cebu City (Calamba), Oslob, Boljoon, Sibonga, Argao and Dalaguete.

The mortuary chapel in Calamba, Cebu City is impressive because it has the most stylized skeleton relieve anywhere else in Cebu.

Built in 1863, the cemetery chapel of Calamba is the only extant structure in Cebu City and it originally belonged to the parish of San Nicolas. Of all the structures found in Cebu, it has the most stylized and biggest skeleton relief found at its pediment. It has a crown on its head, a staff in its right hand and at its left, holding a box containing an hourglass.

There used to be a small bell atop it. Below the pediment, you have this array of skull and crossbones and at the top side of the portal is a pair of skull and crossbone medallions. A floral rosette (or is this a stylized wheel?) can be found at the sides. The date of completion is etched atop the door. This structure is built at the center of the cemetery but unfortunately, an ugly canopy that doesn’t harmonize with the architecture was added infront.

Dalaguete cemetery chapel in ruins

Dalaguete mortuary chapel beside the church

Located at the backside of the cemetery, the one in Dalaguete (left) is a ruined structure. Its roofless with debris and human bones scattered at its floor. It has a very simple facade. A finial is located atop a rounded pediment. No relieves are found.

The mortuary chapel on the other hand (right), located just beside the church, is quite impressive and doesn’t look like one. At first, I thought that this was a stylized belen (nativity scenes during Christmas) but at the back of the structure is a skull and cross bones relief. The facade originally have impressive carvings detailed with symbolism of the church, Christ and the Augustinian Order but because of the deterioration, they covered the parts with cement. Now, the rich details located below the fascia can no longer be seen.

Sibonga cemetery chapel

The cemetery chapel is located at the center but it is in such bad condition that it is in danger of collapsing. Vegetation has grown on almost all the external parts and if this will not be addressed, the roots will further weaken the stones. It is another different style, the only one with a dome. Curiously, it has two entrances at both facing sides.

Like in Dalaguete, open coffins with one still bearing a dried out corpse and bones are scattered at its floor. Niches have been filled and some have been enlarged to accommodate the bigger sizes of modern coffins. It’s a very much neglected structure.

Oslob cemetery chapel

Oslob mortuary chapel infront of the church

Oslob is one of three municipalities in Cebu that have both cemetery and mortuary chapels. The cemetery chapel is located at the back end of the cemetery and it’s form resembles that of Argao. However, niches have crept infront of it and a canopy was cemented that now mars and hides the architectural details of this structure.

The mortuary chapel is located infront of the church. It has the skeleton with a staff and hourglass relief at its pediment. Only the facade remains as part of the original structure.

Argao cemetery chapel

Argao mortuary chapel infront of the church

The cemetery chapel of Argao (left) is located at the far end. When I first saw this in 2005, it was in ruins with the roof caved. When I came back this year, I was surprised and happy to see that they have restored it.

The mortuary chapel, on the other hand (right) was recently “rediscovered.” It is a beautiful structure that has wonderful details at its facade and, like the cemetery chapel, has a relief of St. Michael. There used to be a structure infront of it that hid this chapel and with a revitalized tourism effort in the municipality, they have torn it down. I just hope that they will eventually clean the vegetation growing at the pediment. As romantic as it may seem it does weaken the structure and the roots will eventually damage the stones. A more detailed post can be found at the Cebu Cathedral blog.

A skeleton with a staff and an hourglass carved at the pediment of Calamba (Cebu City) mortuary chapel built in 1863

Cebu doesn’t have the impressive colonial era cemeteries of Iloilo. There’s no ornate polygonal cemetery chapels like that of San Joaquin, Cabatuan and Janiuay. However, it does have its own surprises that would also delight lovers of these heritage structures.

Having gone around these areas for a few years now, I can’t help but notice the carved relieves of skull and cross bones lining the walls or skeletons, perhaps representing Death, carrying a staff and an hourglass decorating the pediment of the cemetery chapel. These two are quite common.

These cemeteries were built in the 19th century and those that are featured here are found in Cebu City and in the southern towns of Oslob and Boljoon which were under the Augustinian Order. In the north, I haven’t found these yet except remnants of walls. There are also relieves found in a few other towns but usually these are just skull and cross bones.

Unfortunately, like the fortifications that still exists in this island province, these are in bad condition and are in danger of crumbling to oblivion.

I was looking at archival photos of churches in my files and found two images of the retablo mayor of Oslob Church in Cebu. It is resplendent with all those finery and decorations that are done on special occasions like the feast of the main patron, Inmaculada Concepcion or during the Lenten Season.

The photos might have been taken during the late 19th or early 20th centuries. Notice the benches placed infront of each other just before the altar. These were usually reserved for the elite while the townspeople stand further with no benches or seats provided.

At the left image, notice the painted ceilings which, unfortunately, during the fire of 1955 was totally gutted by fire. The interior seems to have its own trompe l’oeil judging from the topmost photo wherein at the right, one of the pillars is painted. Compare these with the interior circa 2005, before the fire of 2008 and really, there’s a big, big difference. These two archival images are courtesy of Pedro Galende, OSA, San Agustin Museum Director.

One of the bastions that comprise the former fortified settlement of Daanglungsod in Oslob. Translated to English, it means "old town" in Cebuano.

To put into context the different Spanish colonial era fortifications in the Philippines, I have prepared a 3-part series about this. Read all about it starting with this post.

Oslob has always been frequented by Muslim slave raiders that passed these areas during the amihan or northwest moonsoon on their return trip to Sulu with their boatloads of captives. The year 1813 was significant to the townspeople as it was during this time that, with the aid of Fray Julian Bermejo’s string of watchtowers, the local armed militia was able to repel and capture the leader of a raiding party off Sumilon Island. This decisive event led to peace and a stop to the slaving, enough reason that a new town was formed, now the current poblacion of Oslob.

Daanglungsod was originally named Bolocboloc, two kilometers south of the present center of the municipality. Just along the highway infront of the sea are the ruins of a once fortified settlement that is believed to have been constructed in 1788. The quadrilateral fort has five bastions made from coral stones. Window openings still have its molave planks as lintels.

The area is quite big. At the front-center is a modern chapel where the original might have stood. At one side is said to be the main entrance, as Javellana wrote in his book. So does this mean that the current roadside entrance fronting the chapel was originally closed? Near this religious structure are stone foundations, remnants of habitable structures found near two walls.

Curiosly, at the center is a ruined watchtower. Why was this here? Was this part of Fray Bermejo’s network of fortifications to warn of approaching raiders? Or does this predate the walls, one that was constructed first? At the back of this settlement is a hill that has another watchtower built. It provides a breathtaking view of Cebu Strait and the neighboring islands of Bohol, Siquijor and Negros.

The current condition of the ruins of Daanglungsod is very bad. Overgrown with vegetation, the walls are deteriorating and crumbling to this day.

The walls of a ruined church in Lagonoy, Camarines Sur overlooking the river. Below one window can be found the year 1768. Bicol suffered heavily from the Muslim slave raids of which, this church most likely met its fate and was abandoned. The current church, probably 19th century is located a couple of meters inland.

This 3 part post is an introduction to the Muslim slave raids focusing on the middle of the 18th - middle of the 19th centuries in the Philippines. It is important to understand and put into context the different watchtowers, fortresses and fortress churches that can still be found in the coastal areas of Luzon and the Visayas. Read Part 1 | Part 2

The Muslim slave raids in the middle of the 18th to the middle of the 19th centuries were indeed one of the darkest years of colonial Philippines. It is estimated that during this period, around 200,000 natives were abducted. Because of the ineffectiveness and lack of political will of the governing colonial power to stem these raids, and prior to 1848, the navy vessels were often outrun by the faster prahus, or, in the case of Bicol, refused the request of the mayors to arm their towns for fear that the townspeople will revolt against them, these depradations dragged on for more than a hundred years. The social and economic costs were incalculable as town populations were affected (or even abandoned) and during the habagat months, no one ventured out into the open for fear of being captured.

Like every situation, it also brought something good out of it. As coastal towns were abandoned, new ones were formed inland. Roads were opened instead of depending solely on waterways. With the Spanish friar the only Spaniard representing the colonial government, he became not only the priest but the town’s leader and captain. During this period, several so called friar-soldiers rose of which Fray Julian Bermejo of Boljoon is known for the “telegraphic stations” he constructed running the whole length of southwestern - south Cebu starting in Carcar down to Santander. These watchtowers were manned by appointed native sentries who, upon sighting the dreaded prahus of the raiders signaled the next station with flags, smokes, horns or fires triggering an alarm system down the coast and telling the local fighters to prepare and arm themselves.

There were other reactions to these slave raidings of which several fortifications were built. We have the fortress-churches of Miag-ao in Iloilo; Danao, Argao, Boljoon in Cebu; Boac in Marinduque; Guiuan, Laoang and Capul in Samar; Agutaya, Cuyo, Cagayancillo in Palawan; several watchtowers that can be seen in Ilocos, Bicol, Samar, Leyte, Negros, Cebu and other Visayan islands. Fortified settlements also cropped up with thick walls to drive out invaders. Unfortunately, most of these structures are in great danger of being lost forever as they lay crumbling and disintegrating. There is no clear cut plan to save these remnants of our people’s struggle to live.

Read Part 1 | Part 2

To further understand this important but forgotten part of Philippine (and perhaps Southeast Asian) history, The following are perfect references:

Warren, James Francis. The Sulu Zone 1768-1898 THe Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1985.

Warren, James Francis. Iranun and Balangingi: Globalization, Maritime Raiding and the Birth of Ethnicity. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 2002.

JAVELLANA, Rene B., S.J. Fortess of Empire: Spanish Colonial Fortifications of the Philippines, 1565 - 1898. Makati City: Bookmark, Inc., 1997.

A crumbling watchtower at the coast of Oslob, Cebu constructed in the early 19th century. A series of these structures were built by the “soldier-priest” Fr. Julian Bermejo as telegraphic stations that alerted the communities of impending Muslim slave raiders.

This 3 part post is an introduction to the Muslim slave raids focusing on the middle of the 18th - middle of the 19th centuries in the Philippines. It is important to understand and put into context the different watchtowers, fortresses and fortress churches that can still be found in the coastal areas of Luzon and the Visayas. Read Part 1 | Part 3.

The pirate wind, locally called the habagat or the southwest monsoon blows between May and October. It intensifies in August and September of which the Ilanun (or Iranun or Lanun) and later, the Balangingi (Iranun and their captives who were integrated into their community living in the island of Balangingi) took advantage. These were the months that communities across Southeast Asia were afraid of. In the Philippines, the prahus, sea vessels of the raiders, can number at an average of 40 - 50 with 2,500 - 3,000 armed raiders. In some years, the number of these boats reached 70-80 or at one time, a 100!

In the entire Southeast Asia, or where the slave raidings stretched from New Guinea to even as far as the Bay of Bengal, the brunt of the pillage and destruction was directed in Hispanized Philippines. The prahus usually travel from their base in Sulu and Balangingi and cross the Sulu Sea to Balabac in Palawan. They then follow the coast up until the Calamianes and cross to the Cuyo Islands to stock on food and other provisions. From there, once they reach the Sibuyan Sea, Romblon, Marinduque, Mindoro, other Visayan islands and southern Luzon were easy pickings. These areas suffered the most of all places in the country. They even had forward bases in Masbate, Burias and Mindoro where they launched their raiding activities venturing to Cavite and at a time, even rowed up near the capital, Manila. Sometimes, in search of captives, they head up north into the Ilocos, round off Cagayan and then to Bicol.

During December to March, the amihan or the northwest monsoon takes over and the raiders now use it for their return to Sulu with their captives. Samar and Leyte were frequently raided. Bohol, Cebu and Negros weren’t spared. Because of these slaving activities, much of maritime trade collapsed. In Leyte and Samar, trade with Manila was at a virtual standstill for decades. Churches and communities were burned and sometimes these towns were abandoned and the people fled to the interior. In the Visayas Islands, with not much to go inland, fortifications were built.

The slave raiders really were not picky. Fishermen and trading vessels were “fished” out at sea. Town fiestas and other major religious activities were favorite times since the people, lost in the revelry, were easy to capture and at a great number. Families were torn asunder. Men, women, children of different age from as young as 6 to as old as 50 were captured. Spaniards, foreigners and clergy were ransomed at great cost. The natives were sold in Sulu to work in the fields, forests, seas and mountains or bartered off to other merchants for other Asian markets. That’s why, a captive from Bicol can be brought to Borneo or to Indonesia where the chance of returning to one’s home was almost impossible. The sickly and elderly, unfortunately, were traded to some fierce forest tribes in Borneo, specifically the Dayaks who use human sacrifices for their many rituals.

One unique thing about the slaves, specifically those deployed in Sulu was that, unlike slaving in the rest of the world, they enjoyed relative freedoms, as long as they converted to Islam. Most of the time, their masters treated them well and if they don’t find their present master good, they can request to be sold to another. They can even win their freedom or purchase it. Women slaves were treated better and some even made it to be concubines of high ranking Muslims. Because many of the captives were literate, oftentimes surpassing their masters, they were highly valued because of their skill and were given high status in the household and most of the times, given a bigger role in the business. That’s why, at the peak of the raidings, integrated captives made up more than 40% of the population of Sulu. For most, their lot was better there than suffering under the yoke of Spanish abuses, backbreaking labor and taxes. Consequently, those captives also were employed in the raiding, often leading the prahus to their former communities and with their knowledge of timing during religious celebrations, proved to be devastating.

The Muslim slave raids had its peak during the early 19th century. By 1848, the beginning of the end of these piratical raids started with the introduction by the Spaniards of gunship steamboats that attacked the raider’s main base, Balangingi where many were captured and kept in Zamboanga. By the 1860s, these prisoners and their families were exiled to Isabela where they worked the tobacco fields in the hope that, with their dispossession and conversion to Catholicism they will eventually abandon their slaving way of life.

Read Part 1 | Part 3

Tanon Strait between the southern tip of Cebu and the southwestern side of Negros. During the height of the Muslim slave raids in the 19th century, this was usually the homeward route taken by the raiders with their captives back to Sulu.

This 3 part post is an introduction to the Muslim slave raids focusing on the middle of the 18th - middle of the 19th centuries in the Philippines. It is important to understand and put into context the different watchtowers, fortresses and fortress churches that can still be found in the coastal areas of Luzon and the Visayas. Read Part 2 | Part 3

If not for the strange confluence of events in the middle of the 18th century, a volcanic eruption in Mindanao and a shift in the food and drink preferences in China and Britain, respectively, Sulu wouldn’t have risen into an international emporium and thus become the center of Euroasian trade. The Muslim slave raids that has engulfed the country and most of maritime Asia wouldn’t have been as wide and as devastating as before that time. It has precipitated one of the darkest history in the region and all because of the British’s insatiable need for a mildly addicting beverage, tea.

As early as 1590 Spanish chroniclers have already recorded a major Muslim raid in Northern Mindanao and the Visayas. But the raids from the late 16th to the middle of the 18th centuries, were not as extensive compared to the succeeding decades. This period, especially the later part was tied up with the rise of the Maguindanao Sultanate that employed the unique raiding talents of a sea/river dwelling people, the Iranuns in the coasts of Ilana Bay in Western Mindanao and upstream to the banks of Lake Lanao. This to fulfill the need for manpower to support trade with regional markets. After the Maketering Volcano erupted signaling the decline of the sultanate, these intrepid people relocated to Sulu due to hard economic times.

Tea has been consumed in China for centuries but when it was introduced in Britain in 1610 it took about 115 years to become popular. In 1750, the demand was so high that estimates of legal imports was around 40 million pounds and has displaced ale as the national drink. The commodity was imported by the English East India Company paid with silver from its colony in India, but in the long term, economically unviable. The British doesn’t have trade items that interested the Chinese and thus, they set their eyes in other parts of Asia. Beyond this point, most western accounts are silent on the pivotal role of Sulu in this trade.

Muslim Mindanao has always been a challenge for the Spanish colonizers. It was here that their hold was tenuous and shaky, if not unsuccessful and have been despised by the Muslims. After the British Invasion of Manila in 1762-64, a consequence of the Anglo-Franco Seven Years War with Spain dragged into the conflict by reason of an alliance with the latter. The Muslims of Sulu and the British found a more or less common ground.

Fortunately, Sulu was at the right place and with the relocation of the Iranuns, at the right time. Its strategic location made it the conduit of the Chinese-Indian/British trade. Britain by way of the East India Company traded with the Sultan of Sulu providing rich fabrics, utensils, other items and in succeeding decades, English manufactured steel products from knives to even the Mindanao kris to opium in exchange for camphor, pearls, bird’s nest, tripang (sea cucumber) and other forest/marine products that were highly coveted in China. These they traded for tea.

With skyrocketing demand for trade, the need for manpower to harvest the countryside, mountains, forests and seas became critical. And thus, with the Iranuns talent, they were once again deployed to harvest people not only in the Hispanized islands of the Visayas and Luzon but it spread across a wide swath stretching from New Guinea in the east to as far as the Andaman Islands in the West.

Read Part 2 | Part 3